The book of Proverbs is a marvelous collection of wise sayings and instructions for living a useful and effective life. The collection forms part of the larger group of biblical writings known as "wisdom literature" - literature that gives instructions for living while pondering the difficulties of life. Proverbial wisdom is characterized by short, pithy statements; but the speculative wisdom, such as Ecclesiastes or Job, uses lengthy monologues and dialogues to probe the meaning of life, the problem of good and evil, and the relationship between God and people. This type of literature was common throughout the ancient Near East.
Authorship and Date
The traditional view that Solomon wrote the entire book of Proverbs is supported by the titles in 1:1; 10:1; and 25:1. Moreover, Solomon was a wise man, writing proverbs and collecting sayings from other wise men (see 22:17-24:34). Proponents of this view have usually assumed that Agur (30:1) and Lemuel (31:1) were pseudonyms of Solomon.
This general view, however, stands in need of some revision. It is now recognized that Agur and Lemuel were probably not pseudonyms for Solomon and that 22:17-24:34 forms a separate collection of proverbs because it has a distinct form, separate title and purpose, and seems to be directly related to the "Instruction of Amenemope," an Egyptian document written between 1580 and 1100 B.C. It is impossible to determine who added this material to the collection of Proverbs. Furthermore, the title of 1:1, which has generally been taken to head up 1:1-9:18, may not actually refer to these chapters; it may simply be the heading of the whole book in its final form and may not necessarily indicate that the first nine chapters are from Solomon.
An examination of the titles in the book is important to the study of its authorship. The heading in 10:1 clearly credits Solomon for the subsequent material. In 10:1-22:16 there may be two collections (chs. 10-15); 16:1-22:16) due to the difference in style. The heading in 25:1 also affirms that Solomon was the author (or editor) of a larger collection from which the scribes of Hezekiah's court excerpted the proverbs in chs. 25-29. Once again there are differences of style between chs. 25-27 and 28-29.
In conclusion, then, Solomon is responsible for 10:1-22:16 and perhaps all or part of chs. 25-29. Most scholars, including many conservatives, see some dependence of 22:17-24:34 on the "Instruction of Amenemope." Presumably Israel knew these sayings by the time of Solomon. Most scholars also see chs. 30-31 as non-Solomonic and from a later date, perhaps from a contemporary of Hezekiah. The prologue to the book (1:8-9:18) would have been added to form an introduction, certainly by the time of Hezekiah, and possibly in Solomon's time. Finally, 1:1-7 headed up the final collection as a title.
Literary Forms
A casual reading of the Proverbs reveals the general form of a proverb. It is a short, pregnant sentence or phrase whose meaning is applicable in many situations. A thorough analysis of the proverbs reveals that these short sayings follow many patterns and constructions that have bearing on the meanings.
As with all Hebrew poetic discourse, the proverbs use different types of parallelism. Synonymous parallelism expresses one idea in parallel but slightly different expressions: "A fool's mouth is his undoing, / and his lips are a snare to his soul" (18:7). In antithetical parallelism the second line contrasts with the first: "The plans of the righteous are just, / but the advice of the wicked is deceitful" (12:5). Emblematic parallelism uses a figurative illustration as one of the parallel units: "As vinegar to the teeth and smoke to the eyes, / so is a sluggard to those who send him" (10:26). Another helpful category is the general one of synthetic parallelism, in which the second line amplifies the first in some way: "The Lord works out everything for his own ends - /even the wicked for a day of disaster" (16:4). Lastly, proverbs whose second line simply completes the idea begun in the first as said to exhibit formal parallelism. One part may contain the subject and the second the predicate (15:31); the first line may state a condition and the second its consequences (16:7), its cause (16:12), or its purpose (15:24); and one part may state a preferred value or course over the other: "Better a little with the fear of the Lord / than great wealth with turmoil" (15:16).
Proverbs are essentially didactic, whether they follow the pattern of a formal instruction using imperatives or prohibitions (16:3; 23:9), are expressed in didactic sayings that observe traits and acts that are to be followed or avoided (14:31), tell an example story (7:6-23), make a wisdom speech (8:1-36), or develop numerical sayings (6:16-19).
Instructions often use motivations - reasons for complying. The most common form of motivation is a subordinate clause stating the purpose, result, or reason for the instruction: "Listen to advice and accept instruction, / and in the end you will be wise" (19:20). Sometimes the motivation is implied in a general observation: "My son, do not despise the Lord's discipline / and do not resent his rebuke, / because the Lord disciplines those he loves, / as a father the son he delights in" (3:11-12).
Theological Values
This collection of wise sayings is not exclusively religious; its teachings apply to human problems in general and not primarily to the problems of the religious community or to major theological themes such as election, redemption, and covenant. Rather, the teacher concerns himself with plain, ordinary individuals who live in the world. Accordingly, the sayings exhibit several distinctive characteristics. (1) They focus attention on individuals rather than on the nation, setting forth the qualities needed and the dangers to be avoided by people seeking to find success with God. (2) They are applicable to all people at any period in history who face the same types of perils and have the same characteristics and abilities (1:20; 8:1-5). (3) They are based on respect for authority, traditional values, and the wisdom of mature teachers (24:21). (4) They are immensely practical, giving sound advice for developing personal qualities that are necessary to achieve success in this life and to avoid failure or shame, and warning that virtue is rewarded by prosperity and well-being but that vice leads to poverty and disaster.
It would be wrong, however, to conclude that Proverbs is a secular book; its teachings are solidly based on "the fear of the Lord" (1:7), making compliance with them a moral and spiritual matter. In fact, the book teaches that this fear of the Lord is the evidence of faith; for the wise teacher enjoins people to trust in the Lord whose counsel stands (19:21) and not their own understanding (3:5-7). The purpose of proverbial teaching, then, is to inspire faith in the Lord (22:19). Such reverential fear requires a personal knowledge of the Lord ("fear" and "knowledge" are parallel in 9:10) - to find this fear is to find knowledge (2:5), a knowledge that comes by revelation (3:6). Ultimately, however, the fear of the Lord is manifested in a life of obedience, confessing and forsaking sin (28:18), and doing what is right (21:3), which is the believer's task before God (17:3). Since the motivation for faith and obedience comes from the Scripture, Proverbs relates the way of wisdom to the law (28:4; 29:18). In the final analysis we must conclude there are no secular proverbs that can be contrasted with religious ones; everything on earth serves the purposes of God and is potentially holy.
Content
Proverbs 1:8-9:18 is an organized introduction to the book with many admonitions and prohibitions as well as example stories and personified wisdom-speech. This section runs in cycles: the purpose of Proverbs is to give wisdom (1:1-7), but folly may interrupt this purpose (1:8-33); there are advantages to seeking wisdom (2:1-4:27), but folly may prevent one from seeking it (5:1-6:19); there are likewise advantages to finding wisdom (6:20-9:12), but folly may prevent this too (9:13-18).
Proverbs 10:1-22:16 is a collection of some 375 unrelated proverbs. Then, after the sayings patterned after the "Instruction of Amenemope" (22:17-24:22), another collection of proverbs is included (chs. 25-29). The last two sections include among other things the numerical sayings of the wise (30:10-33) and the acrostic poem on wisdom (31:10-33).
The book of Proverbs covers a wide variety of topics, most of them connected with daily living. Topics include such areas as wisdom in general, personal conduct, human attitudes (dangers of negative ones and value of positive ones), child-rearing, marital relationships, business tactics, use of money, friendship, instructions for rulers and judges, and use of alcohol. For a topical index on this book, see EBC 5:897-903.
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"Proverbs," Zondervan NIV Bible Commentary, Volume I by Allen P. Ross (Proverbs) pp. 938-940, Zondervan Publishing House: Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1994.
